June 1, 2026
5G Handover for AMRs: Key Metrics to Track
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5G and TSN are transforming industrial automation. Together, they enable wireless connectivity with the precision of deterministic networks, crucial for modern factories. 5G ensures fast, low-latency communication, while TSN guarantees predictable data delivery. This combination supports advanced applications like mobile robots, real-time control, and precision equipment.
Key points to know:
A structured approach – starting with pilot tests and using tools like TSN Translators – can help industries adopt this technology effectively. The integration of 5G and TSN is reshaping how factories operate, paving the way for more efficient, connected systems.
TSN, or Time-Sensitive Networking, is built on a collection of IEEE 802.1 standards, each addressing a specific aspect of deterministic communication. By understanding these individual standards, it becomes easier to see how they work together as a system.
5G builds on TSN principles by introducing features tailored for deterministic performance.
Without these TSN-specific enhancements, a standard 5G system typically delivers an average round-trip latency of 11.36 ms, which falls short of the sub-10 ms latency required for many industrial processes. The features listed above are what allow 5G to meet these stringent demands.
"The 5G system handles the service requirements of TSN traffic through its internal protocols… the 5G system appears as a black box to TSN entities." – Adnan Aijaz and Sajida Gufran, Toshiba Europe Ltd.
The integration architecture of 5G TSN combines these features and standards into a unified system. From the outside, the 5G network functions like a virtual IEEE 802.1Q bridge, with all scheduling, routing, and retransmission processes managed internally and hidden from the TSN domain.
At the edges of this virtual bridge sit two translator components:
These translators measure residence time – the time a packet spends within the 5G system – and add this value to the correction field in synchronisation messages. This ensures downstream devices remain accurately synchronised, even with variable wireless delays.
On the control plane, the TSN Application Function (TSN AF) acts as a bridge between the 5G core and the external CNC. It communicates the 5G system’s bridge capabilities to the CNC and translates configuration instructions – such as Gate Control Lists – into 5G QoS flow assignments.
In February 2026, Murata, SoftBank, and the CC-Link Partner Association (CLPA) demonstrated the precision of this architecture. They successfully achieved CC-Link IE TSN Class B operation over a live 5G network, with an average time synchronisation accuracy of 122 ns – well within the requirements for high-speed motion control in manufacturing. This achievement underscores the critical role of this architecture in enabling reliable, low-latency communication for advanced industrial automation.
The integration of 5G with TSN combines the precision of deterministic communication with the freedom of wireless connectivity. While TSN ensures predictable delays and prevents packet collisions, 5G eliminates the need for physical cabling, enabling dependable, time-sensitive communication for mobile industrial systems.
Simulations of 5G-TSN bridges have shown a 99.9% delivery rate with an average end-to-end delay of just 2.58 ms. When IEEE 802.1CB (FRER) is used – where frames are sent across multiple 5G paths simultaneously – latency remains under 10 ms for 99.99% of packets. The Fraunhofer Institute for Production Technology (IPT) tested this in a real production setting, confirming that 5G TSN meets the strict standards needed for real-time industrial tasks like tool wear detection.
This performance advantage supports the vision of a unified network. Beyond improving latency and reliability, 5G TSN simplifies network management by creating a single, cohesive infrastructure.
5G TSN addresses the issue of fragmented networks. Many factories rely on separate systems for tasks like motion control, safety, and IT traffic, each with its own protocols and maintenance needs. With 5G TSN, these can be unified into a single, standardised network capable of handling both time-sensitive and general data traffic.
This unified approach has practical advantages. For example, Autonomous Mobile Robots (AMRs) and Automated Guided Vehicles (AGVs) can now operate with TSN-level precision over wireless connections, removing the need for fixed Ethernet setups. Production lines can also be reconfigured quickly without the hassle of rewiring. Airbus highlighted this potential through the stic5G consortium project, achieving seamless IT/OT connectivity across production lines without relying on additional cabling or specialised PROFINET switches. Additionally, this network convergence enables edge computing, allowing complex control tasks for mobile robots to be offloaded to local edge nodes. This reduces device power demands while maintaining low latency.
However, these benefits come with certain challenges that require careful consideration during deployment.
Introducing 5G TSN into industrial environments isn’t without its hurdles. Issues like wireless asymmetry and mobility-related handovers can disrupt synchronisation. Unlike wired connections, 5G uplinks and downlinks often have different propagation delays, and handovers during mobility can introduce jitter, affecting deterministic performance.
"A vanilla 5G system is not equipped for handling TSN traffic with stringent requirements. This necessitates end-to-end optimization." – Adnan Aijaz, Toshiba Europe Ltd.
Addressing these issues involves precise planning. For example, measuring and correcting the delay differences between uplink and downlink paths can achieve synchronisation accuracy within 500 µs, even under challenging conditions. These adjustments, combined with DS-TT and NW-TT translators, help maintain synchronisation reliability. Beyond technical concerns, organisations must also tackle the IT/OT skills gap, ensuring collaboration between teams managing industrial equipment and those responsible for IP networks. Starting with a pilot project is often the best way to identify and resolve these challenges before scaling up.
5G TSN Integration Roadmap for Industrial Automation
Start by listing all the industrial protocols currently in use, such as PROFINET, EtherNet/IP, or older fieldbus systems. This is crucial because 5G TSN needs to act as a virtual bridge connecting all of them seamlessly. Additionally, analyse your network’s traffic patterns – look at factors like periodicity, burst sizes, and Bandwidth Allocation Table (BAT) for each industrial data stream.
Two key factors demand early attention. First, the physical environment: 3GPP TR 38.901 outlines specific Indoor Factory (InF) profiles that affect signal propagation. For example, sparse clutter with a high base station (InF-SH) behaves differently from dense clutter with a low base station (InF-DL), and these differences impact path loss predictions. Second, synchronisation precision: decide whether Ethernet-based IEEE 802.1AS or IP-based IEEE 1588 PTP is needed, based on the level of timing accuracy your processes require. High-precision applications often necessitate time offsets of less than 1 µs to 10 µs.
"The main advantage of IEEE TSN is that it can provide deterministic communications for industrial data having tight time constraints using a general-purpose Ethernet bridge while providing best-effort services for other types of data." – Jari Mutikainen and Riccardo Guerzoni, DOCOMO Communications Laboratories Europe
Next, choose your deployment model. A Standalone Non-Public Network (SNPN) offers complete isolation, while a Public Network Integrated NPN (PNI-NPN) leverages shared infrastructure and allows for broader mobility. Before installing hardware, map your TSN traffic streams to the appropriate 5G Quality of Service (QoS) flows. This groundwork ensures your pilot integrates smoothly with the larger 5G TSN architecture.
Once your requirements are clear, the next step is to validate performance through a structured pilot. This should include four focused test phases:
| Testing Phase | Focus Area | Key Metric |
|---|---|---|
| Lab Prototype | Protocol translation (DS-TT/NW-TT) | Functional correctness |
| Redundancy Test | Reliability via FRER (IEEE 802.1CB) | 99.99th percentile latency |
| Scheduling Test | Determinism via TAS (IEEE 802.1Qbv) | Jitter and cycle time stability |
| Sync Test | Time accuracy (IEEE 802.1AS) | Microsecond-level clock offset |
The Fraunhofer IPT’s 2025 validation demonstrated that combining 5G mid-band with mmWave and IEEE 802.1CB (FRER) can achieve latency below 10 ms for 99.99% of packets, meeting the demands of real-time industrial applications.
"The likelihood that errors are induced at the same time on multiple independent links using FRER is significantly reduced; thereby, an increase in reliability of the 5G transmissions is observed." – Pierre E. Kehl, Fraunhofer Institute for Production Technology IPT
For legacy devices without native TSN support, off-the-shelf TSN gateways – such as the Analog Devices RapID platform – can enable these devices to participate in the network without requiring costly hardware replacements. This ensures deterministic performance even in environments with older equipment.
After a successful pilot, scale the solution through a structured deployment plan and ongoing management. A Centralised Network Configuration (CNC) entity should handle traffic path calculations and scheduling while interfacing with the 5G control plane. It’s crucial to consider both the 5G system’s capabilities and the limitations of any wired TSN segments. Configuring these elements in isolation can disrupt end-to-end determinism.
For critical closed-loop applications, combine 5G mid-band for coverage with mmWave for higher throughput. Using FRER to replicate packets across both paths can significantly reduce latency. In practice, this approach lowered the 99.99th percentile latency from over 11 ms to 8.28 ms in the Fraunhofer IPT prototype. Additionally, container orchestration platforms like Kubernetes can simplify the management of edge computing applications, allowing for seamless software updates and control logic adjustments without interrupting operations.
Regularly monitor metrics like latency, jitter, and packet loss at the application layer. As your factory evolves – whether through new machinery, reconfigured production lines, or added robots – your network schedule will need to adapt. Starting with an Open RAN (O-RAN) architecture provides the flexibility to adjust radio resource allocation for TSN traffic as requirements change, avoiding dependence on proprietary hardware. This adaptability is key to maintaining the reliable, deterministic performance that 5G TSN integration promises.
Firecell plays a key role in delivering practical 5G TSN solutions designed specifically for industrial environments, building on the roadmap for implementation.
Firecell offers two main product lines: the Orion series for research and development and the Pegasus series for large-scale industrial use. The Orion Labkit is designed for quick deployment, with setup times as short as 15 minutes. It supports all Private Mobile Network (PMN) bands, connects up to 15 devices, and covers areas up to 1,000 m². On the other hand, the Pegasus Network is built for larger operations, offering coverage of up to 5 km² and throughput speeds of up to 600 Mbps, making it ideal for factories, warehouses, and logistics hubs.
| Feature | Orion Labkit | Pegasus Network |
|---|---|---|
| Primary Use | R&D, lab testing, product demos | Factories, warehouses, logistics |
| Coverage Area | Up to 1,000 m² (indoor) | Up to 5 km² (indoor/outdoor) |
| Throughput | Up to 600 Mbps | Up to 600 Mbps |
| Device Capacity | Up to 15 devices | Large-scale support |
| Mobility | Limited | Full mobility support |
Both systems are powered by 5G Standalone architecture and incorporate 3GPP Release 16/17 features. These include Ethernet PDU sessions, over-the-air synchronisation using IEEE 802.1AS, and TSN Translators, ensuring a smooth integration of 5G and TSN technologies.
What sets Firecell apart is its focus on protocol transparency. This approach allows seamless operation of PROFINET over 5G TSN without requiring reconfiguration of PLCs, sensors, or actuators, significantly lowering adoption hurdles.
"Private 5G networks that will incorporate TSN technology can be particularly useful in industries where high levels of coordination and control are required, such as in manufacturing or transportation." – Zineb Gdali, Firecell
This was demonstrated in February 2023, when Firecell joined the stic5G consortium (Safe TSN for Industrial-Grade Real-Time Campus 5G) alongside Airbus. The project improved production line connectivity by using PROFINET-capable infrastructure over 5G TSN, eliminating the need for additional cabling. This transparent connectivity enhanced efficiency across all production machines. For mobile equipment like Autonomous Guided Vehicles (AGVs) and robots, Firecell’s solution ensures consistent performance by using packet replication across independent wireless paths, maintaining reliability even if one link falters.
These real-world applications highlight Firecell’s ability to address industry-specific challenges while laying the groundwork for scalable deployments.
The scalability of Firecell’s solutions allows businesses to transition smoothly from lab testing to full-scale deployment. Using the Orion Labkit, engineering teams can validate critical 5G TSN features – such as time synchronisation and scheduling accuracy – before moving to large-scale operations with the Pegasus Network. This step-by-step process ensures latency, jitter, and reliability targets are met before full deployment.
For larger facilities, a hybrid approach works well. Wired TSN can handle fixed equipment within production cells, while 5G connects these cells across the facility. This method cuts costs while meeting the mobility needs of AGVs and other moving machinery, avoiding the wear and tear associated with cabling. Additionally, Firecell’s solutions integrate seamlessly into existing enterprise LANs, eliminating the need for a full network overhaul. This keeps both costs and deployment timelines manageable, addressing some of the key challenges outlined earlier in this guide.
5G TSN combines the reliability of wired systems with the flexibility of wireless connectivity, redefining industrial automation. Tests have demonstrated impressive performance, achieving latencies below 10 ms for 99.99% of packets using IEEE 802.1CB FRER. The global TSN market is also forecasted to grow significantly, reaching £1.7 billion by 2028.
"The emergence of 5G technology has brought a revolution… the combination of private 5G networks with Time-Sensitive Networking (TSN) is set to bring a paradigm shift in the way industries operate." – Zineb Gdali, Firecell
By merging IT and OT into a unified network, businesses can simplify their infrastructure, cut down on long-term costs, and enable mobility for assets like autonomous guided vehicles and mobile robots. This unified approach, discussed earlier, lays the groundwork for a more efficient and connected industrial landscape. The challenge now is turning this potential into actionable steps.
To harness these benefits, a structured strategy is essential. Start by evaluating your current systems and conducting pilot tests to ensure time synchronisation and scheduling accuracy before rolling out at scale. For applications where safety is critical, testing IEEE 802.1CB FRER early is key to minimising packet loss through redundant wireless paths. Collaborating with an experienced partner can also simplify the process of aligning TSN Quality of Service with 5G QoS flows, ensuring your setup performs reliably in real-world conditions.
Time-Sensitive Networking (TSN) plays a key role in transforming 5G into a deterministic wireless system, which is essential for real-time operations in factories. By ensuring bounded latency, low jitter, and precise time synchronisation, TSN enables the dependable transmission of time-critical data.
This capability is particularly important for applications like high-speed robotics, motion control, and automation, where even minor delays can disrupt operations. Firecell’s private 5G solutions meet these demands by providing flexible and scalable wireless connectivity with performance comparable to traditional Ethernet networks.
A private 5G network offers a fantastic solution for implementing TSN (Time-Sensitive Networking) in industrial settings. TSN is designed to provide low-latency, deterministic communication over wired Ethernet, but the need for cabling can limit flexibility. By combining TSN with a private 5G network, such as 3GPP Non-Public Networks, you get the best of both worlds: wireless mobility and real-time precision.
This combination is particularly suited for cutting-edge automation technologies, including autonomous vehicles and robotic systems. It ensures seamless operation without sacrificing reliability or precise time synchronisation, making it a powerful tool for modern industrial environments.
Accurate time synchronisation in industrial automation over 5G is made possible through the implementation of Time-Sensitive Networking (TSN) standards. With the advancements in 3GPP Releases 16 and 17, 5G systems can now function as IEEE 802.1 TSN bridges. This capability supports key protocols such as IEEE 802.1AS and IEEE 1588 Precision Time Protocol (PTP).
By utilising the 5G network as a transparent clock, these systems dynamically adjust timestamps, ensuring dependable synchronisation at the millisecond level. This precision is critical for coordinating robots, sensors, and controllers in industrial environments.
